America Needs Affordable Housing Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research

America Needs Affordable Housing It is often easy to castigate large cities or third world countries as failures in the field of affordable housing, yet the crisis, like an invisible cancer, manifests itself in many forms, plaguing both urban and suburban areas. Reformers have wrestled passionately with the issue for centuries, revealing the severity of the situation in an attempt for change, while politicians have only responded with band aid solutions. Unfortunately, the housing crisis easily fades from our memory, replaced by visions of homeless vets, or starving children. Metropolis magazine explains that â€Å"†¦though billions of dollars are spent each year on housing and development programs worldwide, ? At least 1 billion people lack adequate housing; some 100 million have none at all.? In an attempt to correct this worldwide dilemma, a United Nations conference, Habitat II, was held in Istanbul, Turkey in June of 1996. This conference was open not only to government leaders, but also to community orga nizers, non governmental organizations, architects and planners. â€Å"By the year 2000, half the world’s people will live in cities. By the year 2025, two thirds of the world population will be urban dwellers ? Globally, one million people move from the countryside to the city each week.? Martin Johnson, a community organizer and Princeton professor who attended Habitat II, definitively put into words the focus of the deliberations. Cities, which are currently plagued with several of the severe problems of dis-investment ?crime, violence, lack of jobs and inequality ?and more importantly, a lack of affordable and decent housing, quickly appeared in the forefront of the agenda. The dis-investment is present in many large citie... ...ary 1997: 66+ Johnson, Martin. â€Å"United Nations Habitat II Conference in Instanbul, Turkey,?The Advocate, December 1996: 2+ Outline I. Introduction A. International situation 1. Habitat II conference in Istanbul a. Article written in Metropolis magazine b. Personal account by community organizer II. Body A. Bergen county 1. HUD statistics for county 2. Studies shown in graphs, charts, tables 3. Maps showing minority, unemployed, and low income areas a. This is to draw a possible conclusion of course b. Statistics show ownership : housing problems B. NYC situation 1. Less statistics, more stories and examples a. Drawing from NYT article 8 part series III. Conclusion(s) A. Are there relationships of race : housing? B. Is the government pulling its weight? C. Are there solutions at hand?

Australia :: History

Australia  ¡Ã‚ §The Portuguese were the first to discover the East Coast of Australia ¡Ã‚ ¨ In Australian history books, it has been thought for hundreds of years that Captain Cook from England was the first to discover the east coast of Australia on 28th April 1770. However latest evidence shows that this historic event is inaccurate. A number of relics and remains have been found which indicate the Portuguese arrival at Australia in the early to mid 1500 ¡Ã‚ ¦s, 200 years before Cook. These clues include the Mahogany Ship, a Portuguese caravel that was shipwrecked six miles west of Warrnambool; a stone house at Bittangabee Bay; the Dieppe map, a secret map drawn by the Portuguese; a cannon and five keys found in Geelong. The shipwreck of Mahogany Ship remains Warrnambool ¡Ã‚ ¦s first shipping disaster. The Mahogany Ship is believed to be a Portuguese caravel lost in 1522 in Warrnambool under the command of Cristovao de Mendonca. Prince Henry, the ruler of Portugal at that time, had sent Mendonca and his crew to Australia in order to discover unfound land on the other side of the world that he had located on the French Map, the Dieppe Map that the Portuguese had stolen and copied. Many people believed that the world was a flat saucer but Prince Henry believed that the world was a sphere. Prince Henry wanted to find out if there was in fact such land over the other side of the world as Australia, if it was inhabited and if there was any treasure or valuable things there. This journey had to be kept a secret because the Portuguese were breaking an agreement that they had made with the Spanish. The agreement stated that the Spanish and Portuguese had half of the world each to explore but they could not explore past their boundaries. Mendonca and his crew set out from Portugal in the 1500 ¡Ã‚ ¦s to find out about this new territory. Unfortunately the Mahogany ship was shipwrecked at Warrnambool in Victoria, Australia. Twenty-seven people reported that they saw the Mahogany Ship sink however no one ever found the remains of the caravel. It has been believed that a great storm last century had buried the ship in sand, under sand dunes, but also the last timbers might have been burnt by whalers and locals who were in need of firewood. In July 1999, Mr. Des Williams discovered some wood buried three metres underneath the sand dunes between Warrnambool and Port Fairy.

Freedom of Speech vs. Censorship Essay

Adopted in 1791, the First Amendment, states â€Å"Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.† (Pilon) The freedom of speech documented in the First Amendment is not only a constitutional protection but also an inevitable part of democratic government and independence, which are essential values in society. â€Å"Censorship,† according to Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, â€Å"is an almost irresistible impulse when you know you are right† (Sunstein). That is why the American citizen’s right to free speech should be held as the highest virtue and any censorship of freedom of speech should not be allowed, however, should be respected. Freedom of speech is essential part of democratic government because the only way truth can emerge when there is an open competition of ideas. However, there is a strong support of censors hip when people start mentioning extremely offensive opinions. Should the freedom of speech be limited in this case? The answer is â€Å"No†. â€Å"If liberty means anything at all,† writes George Orwell, â€Å"it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.† (Cox) If we want to enjoy the freedom fully, the full protection should be given to the freedom of speech; there are no compromises about it. Freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment is not just a right, which can be declared or abolished. According to the â€Å"liberty theory,† proposed by some legal scholars, freedom of speech is an essential part of the liberty of every person who pursues an individual self-determination and self-realization (Cox). Thus, freedom of speech is also a global right one that permits freedom of personal development and self-expression. Another theoretical ground to support the freedom of speech is called â€Å"tolerance theory.† It holds that the ability to teach and promote tolerance is one of the most important assets of freedom of speech (Cox). From this perspective, freedom of speech itself excludes any type of intolerance, which sometimes appears in a threatening form (religious intolerance, racial intolerance). The â€Å"tolerance theory† implies self-restraint, which is the only appropriate response to any ideas, even those that we may personally may dislike or hate. The â€Å"tolerance theory† provides a broader context for exercising tolerance in a conflict-ridden democratic society. Furthermore, in legal practice there are certain restrictions on freedom of speech imposed by the Supreme Court. They define a few categories of speech, which are considered not to be fully protected by the First Amendment. These categories include defamation, advocacy of imminent illegal conduct, obscenity and, fraudulent misrepresentation (Farber). However, if the speech does not fall within one of these categories, there are no grounds for the government to argue that freedom of speech should be restricted because of its harmful content. One of the common bases for partial censorship is proof that the freedom of speech causes imminent illegal action. The Supreme Court has already drawn a careful line between general abstract theories and political dissent on one hand and particular illegal acts incitement on the other. This line is drawn by definition of â€Å"clear and present danger† test (Farber). The government cannot sue the speaker on the basis of its tendency or possibly illegal conduct incitement. Before any speech is punished on the grounds of incitement, there is an obligatory three-part criterion that should be met. First, the speech must directly incite lawless action. Second, the context of speech must imply imminent breaking of the law, rather than call for illegal conduct at some indefinite future time. At last, there should be a strong intention to produce such conduct (Farber). Such â€Å"clear and present danger† test determines the level of probability of threat imposed by the speech in question. However, the evil, which the government tries to prevent by outlawing the advocacy, does not outweigh the harm of outlawing the free speech. Only when the imposed danger becomes evident, the freedom of speech may be questioned. We must be aware that the price for preventing several cases of the openly declared illegal conduct may be paid by restriction of one of the most essential rights that constitute freedom for the entire nation. For the wellbeing and public safety, the Supreme Court has imposed certain regulations on the freedom of speech not because of its content, but because of the time, place and, manner the speech is being expressed (Farber). The court pointed out in Snyder v. Phelps (2011) that one way to ascertain whether a restriction is content-based versus content-neutral is to consider if the speaker had deliver a different message under exactly the same circumstances (Supreme Court of the United States). However, these rules do not limit the actual freedom of speech and are not even upheld, if there is no public need for this. However, concerning the content-neutral regulation, it raises many controversial issues. The content-neutral regulation requires a very careful distinction and therefore may sometimes be misinterpreted. There is a raising concern that such regulation may weaken people’s right to participate, especially if the government puts too many restrictions on how the ideas should be voiced. Thus, by analyzing the current issues concerning the First Amendment right to free speech in the United States, I wanted to show the perspective of outlawing this right, and the negative aspects t hat such outlawing may involve. Freedom of speech has served a crucial role for the right to dissent and for the entire principle of democracy in our society. This law was developed during the course of American history and only after numerous struggles it was achieved. The evolution of this law is still in progress however, the limitation of the basic right to free speech may as well limit our freedom and democracy, therefore should be respected and protected. Works Cited Cox, A. A Freedom of Expression. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1981. Print. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. The Declaration fo Independence and the Consitituion fo the United States. By Roger Pilon. N.p.: Cato Institute, 2000. 1-10. Print. Farber, D. The First Amendment. New York: Foundation Press, 1998. Print. Sunstein, C. Democracy and the Prolem of Free Speech. New York: Free Press, 1993. Print. United States v. Kozminski – 487 U.S. 931 (1988). U.S. Supreme Court, n.d. Web. 1 Apr. 2013. . United States. Supreme Court. â€Å"Supreme Court of the United States of America.† Supreme Court of the United States of America, Oct. 2010. Web. 1 May 2013. .

Continuum of Strategies

Continuum of Strategies Sylvia Brooks, Kenya Conyers, Jennifer Williams SEI/500 Structured English Immersion October 22, 2012 Dr. Gretchen Meyer Continuum of Strategies Introduction: Mrs. Brooks is a first grade teacher in Harvard Elementary School and this year she has twenty five students in her classroom. Of the twenty five students in her classroom, five are English Language Learners. These five students are all Spanish speaking but two are from Puerto Rico and three are of Mexican descent. Mrs. Books has found that two of the five children speak English also.Today’s lesson in Social Studies is titled Community Workers. In this lesson we will begin with the teacher centered strategy. The lesson will also include the teacher assisted, peer assisted, and student centered strategies. Teacher-Centered: Mrs. Brooks began her lesson by using the teacher-centered strategy of lecture. She informed the children that they would begin a unit entitled Community Workers, and doing a pi cture walk from the book. Mrs. Brooks has everyone to put there finger on the title and repeat the title together â€Å"Community Workers†.Next she asks the students for suggestions as to who do they think is a community worker? Mrs. Brooks talks about each suggestion then tells the children to look at the pictures on the next page. The children are given thirty seconds to tell their partner the name of the person in the picture. Then the teacher tells them the correct way to say the name of person in English and proceeds to the next picture (Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2008). The same process continues until the end of the story and the children can verbally identify the names of the community workers.Teacher-Assisted: After the story is completed, Mrs. Brooks began using a teacher assisted strategy. Mrs. Brooks brought out several boxes and placed them on the table. The children stayed with his or her partner. Each group was given a box with the description of a community wo rker inside. Inside each box were several items that were in English along with a picture attached. Each group was able to look into their box and decide what they were going to discuss with the rest of the class. The groups were given about three minutes to have their description ready to present to the class.Once each group had finished presenting their community worker, Mrs. Brooks passed out a worksheet to be completed. Peer Assisted: Before completing the worksheets, the students swapped partners so that one student from each group could discuss their community worker with another student. The students were instructed to write down key elements about each community worker. The students were given 3 minutes and after 3 minutes were up the pairs swapped again. This continued until all students had paired up to cover all five community workers covered.After this students were given directions to complete the worksheet. Student-Centered: Students were directed to complete the works heet by using the notes taken during the â€Å"pair swap†. Students were also able to refer back to the elements used in their presentations in order to complete worksheet. After completing worksheet, students were allowed time to share and discuss answers. Conclusion: After completing each activity on community workers, the teacher began reviewing the lesson that was taught. She began asking questions about community workers.She asked the students to name several community workers, what they do, and if they wear a uniform. The workers that were left out she held up pictures of the workers and allowed the students to answer questions about them. Mrs. Brooks saw that the students retain the information that was taught and enjoyed learning about community workers. References Echevarria, J. , Vogt, M. , & Short, D. J. (2008). Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners. The SIOP ® Model, Third Edition  (3rd ed. ). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, Inc. A Pearson Education Co mpany.

Estore at Shelll Essay

In recent years there has been shift in the fuels and lubricant marketplace that has resulted in more price-sensitive customers and a growing downward pressure on Shell Canada’s margins. Due to the financial pressure to reduce costs, Shell Canada launched an online, self-serve â€Å"eStore† to their agricultural customers in hopes of streamlining their business, cutting costs and salvaging their shrinking profit margins. The purpose of this case report is to address and analyze the issues surrounding eStore, identify the best alternative to solve the key issues and determine the most appropriate method of implementation. It is anticipated that these findings will illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of potential solutions, which will in turn lead to actual implementation of the best solution. Key issues encompassing Shell’s shrinking profit margins, communication and delivery and technology were identified and discussed. Using a SWOT analysis and the Porter’s Five Forces model, internal and external factors affecting the eStore business plan were analyzed. In accordance with the analysis, three alternatives were generated including the redesign of eStore website, abandonment of the online project and the generation of alternative self-serve strategies. After considering which solution would best serve the eStore initiative at Shell Canada, it was determined that continuing with the project and redesigning eStore would be most effective and a plan of implementation was established. It is recommended that Shell Canada follow the implementation plan in order to attain maximum success for eStore. Despite some reluctance of agricultural customers to adopt an online ordering system, there are clear opportunities for Shell’s eStore initiative to succeed in this market. Introduction As a leading manufacturer, distributer and marketer of refined petroleum products, Shell Canada limited is one of the largest integrated petroleum companies in Canada. With consolidated earnings of $810 million and $9. 5 billion in assets in 2003, Shell Canada was ranked the 14th largest company in the country. In recent years there has been a shift in the fuels and lubricant marketplace that has resulted in more price-sensitive customers and a growing downward pressure on Shell’s margins. The agricultural segment s specifically underperforming and because of this, Shell hoped to effectively implement an online ordering system that would decrease the need for costly rural sales representatives. After the initial launch in September of 2002, it was noted that eStore was not as successful in attracting and retaining customers as initially planned. This report will outline key issues, conduct internal and external analysis and prepare an action plan to implement the best solution to achieve success in Shell’s eBusiness initiative. Key Issues Shell has three key issues that need to be addressed before deciding how to best proceed with the implementation of eStore. Shrinking Profit Margins in the Agricultural Segment With the shift in the agricultural segment towards price-sensitive customers, Shell Canada is currently experiencing a growing downward pressure on margins and is thus faced with the need to minimize costs. The remoteness of Shell Canada’s agricultural customers provides unique challenges in managing communication, delivery and sales settlement, therefore there is a need for a more streamlined process in managing these customers. Using local sales representatives in the agricultural segment is costly, and thus Shell is faced with the need to move towards a more efficient, self-serve strategy for these customers. In order to effectively decide on an implementation strategy for eStore, Shell Canada needs to determine an optimal self-serve strategy to satisfy these customers. Communication and Delivery The second key issue is centered upon the lack of sufficient marketing of eStore. After the initial implementation of eStore, Shell Canada noted a pattern whereby customers had signed up for an account only to not use it again or use the system only perfunctorily. Feedback from the customers indicated a range of issues, including a lack of familiarity with eStore and a preference to use other options such as their local sales representatives, or the call center to place their orders. Some customers had not heard of eStore, and those who had, did not see the added value of eStore, and were concerned that an online solution was no better than either placing their orders directly through the 1-800 call center or faxing orders in directly. Many preferred to do business with their local sales representative as they valued the personal relationship of dealing with someone in their own community. Shell is faced with the need to develop a strong marketing platform that will attract customers to eStore in order to increase usage levels. Technology A user experience review of eStore by RareMethod consulting group also indicated a number of technological issues with the eStore website. While some customers saw the value, many found it cumbersome to use and experienced inconvenient interface-related issues. Some customers found the website cryptic and often encountered trouble when typing the Web address. If they failed to type the secure connection URL, it appeared as if the system was non-responsive. Also, the passwords automatically generated by eStore were often too complex for the customers to remember. They required the customer to remember a random sequence of letters and numbers in order to conform to the strict security guidelines. The log-in screen was confusing to customers as it presented what appeared to be two separate log-in panes, one for customers, and one for employees. As these two options were not clearly labeled, customers who chose incorrectly would be presented with an error notification, and would invariably stop trying to log on. The e-mails customers were receiving from eStore were also confusing. Instead of receiving e-mails from eStore, customers were receiving e-mails from eBusiness, and having no familiarity with eBusiness, would often ignore them. In order to enhance the user experience and retain customers on the system, Shell must eliminate these cumbersome interface-related issues and design a website that is more user-friendly. Given these key issues, the following ranking was created based upon their importance and urgency. Shell’s greatest strength is arguably the relationship they have developed with their agricultural customers. By taking advantage of the rapport the local representatives have built with their rural customers, Shell can effectively use these employees as distribution channels to promote eStore. By using Shell International, Shell Canada can also capitalize on considerable resources and expertise to develop an effective implementation strategy. The Electronic Customer Access to Shell (eCATS) initiative by Shell International to develop a generic electronic store can be used as the basis for the self-serve application needed in the Canadian marketplace. By using eCATS as their platform, Shell Canada is able to considerably reduce the development costs. Capitalizing on these strengths will allow Shell to effectively implement eStore in their target market. Weaknesses  Although assessed above as a strength, the relationship the local representatives have built with the rural customers is concurrently one of Shell’s weaknesses when considering the implementation of eStore. Because customers have been able to enjoy a personalized working relationship with members of their own community, they could be hesitant to adopt an impersonal online system that will remove the valued relationship they have with their local representatives. The lack of sufficient marketing for the eStore project is also one of the weaknesses Shell faces in implementing eStore. Many of Shell’s customers have never heard of eStore, and those have do not see the added value in using an online system. Even the local representatives are not fully on board as many feel their time is better spent dealing with client issues rather than promoting eStore. Other weaknesses pertain to technological and user-interface related issues. The customers that have tried eStore are not currently satisfied with the online system and as a result, eStore is experiencing low usage levels. Opportunities Due to the remoteness of many of Shell’s agricultural customers, there is an unfulfilled need to develop a system that makes communication, delivery and sales settlement easier and more efficient for these customers. An online, self-serve strategy provides customers with an easy, convenient way to place orders and gives Shell an opportunity to more effectively manage these customers and generate sales. Also, while a competitor analysis showed that there were many competitors in the market such as Imperial Oil, Irving Oil, UFA, PetroCanada and Federated Co-op, none was pursuing initiatives similar to eStore. Because these companies are likely experiencing the same margin compression, this gives Shell the opportunity to salvage profit margins and simultaneously increase their market share by providing customers with the innovative offering of an electronic store. Streamlining business using an online system would not only attract new customers, but it would also cut costs and relieve some of the pressure on Shell’s margins. Threats Although Shell Canada has few external factors that would seriously threaten the implementation of eStore, there are a few considerations to keep in mind. With the shift in the agricultural segment towards price-sensitive customers, Shell Canada must find ways to satisfy these customers in order to maintain their business. Shell must ensure that an online store is the most effective way to keep these customers, not deter them. Also, although no other company has currently developed an electronic store, there is nothing stopping them from developing one in the future. If Shell is unable to effectively implement their eStore, another competitor could easily learn from Shell’s mistakes, and develop a more effective online system that would satisfy the particular customers Shell was trying to attract. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis The ‘Porter’s Five Forces’ model was designed primarily to conduct industry analysis. It may aid a company to understand both the â€Å"strength of their current competitive position and the strength of the position that they are looking to move into. The model is used to identify whether new products, services or businesses have the potential to be profitable† (Porter’s Five Forces, 2010). Figure 2: Illustration of Porter’s Five Forces Model Source: http://www. quickmba. com/strategy/porters. html Supplier Power- Low  The supplier provides the input for the final product or service, and therefore the supplier for Shell’s eStore is the developer and platform owner. Although implementation of the online system requires the development of at least some the applications since they are not readily available in the marketplace, Shell has extensive resources to draw upon from within the organization therefore making the supplier power low. Members of the Calgary IT group were involved with the development of eCATS and Shell Canada has a strong information architecture already established to guide the implementation of eStore. Buyer Power- High With the shift in the agricultural segment from traditional based farming methods to business-class farming, the fuel and lubricant market currently consists of highly price-sensitive customers. As business-class farmers make up a vast majority of Shell’s agricultural business at 95 per cent, these customers control about 2 percent of Shell’s total market share, and make up a significant source of revenue. Since there are no associated switching costs, customers can easily choose to do business with any company offering the lowest price. As well, customers can decide which services best meet their needs and implementing an electronic store website is only as useful as the number of users. If few people make the transition, regardless of the services eStore can offer, the system will be virtually useless. Threat of Substitutes- High Although substitution is currently not a threat as no other companies have developed an eStore, it is likely that another company could easily develop the same initiative in the near future. While the internet is not heavily regulated in Canada, there is no way for Shell to develop a patent on their eStore system. Another company could not only follow suit, they could learn from Shell’s mistakes and make their own store more effective. Although Shell Canada had the cost-saving advantage of using eCATS as their platform foundation, technology is getting cheaper and companies may be easily able to buy better, more effective online applications off the shelf. Similarly, if Shell fails to satisfy customers with an online ordering system, ustomers may look to other companies that offer the representative relationship they prefer. Barriers to Entry- Low The marketplace in which eStore will conduct business is online, and therefore there are very few barriers to entry. Because there is little regulation online, other companies can easily enter this marketplace with similar initiatives. Moreover, it is often the case that the second version of an IT system is better than the first, therefore other companies can see what Shell has done with eStore, and make their version even more efficient. Competitive Rivalry- High  Taking into consideration the aforementioned factors, competitive rivalry can be considered high. With price sensitive customers in the agricultural segment occupying 2% of the market share, and many players in the market, the company that offers the lowest price will assume this customer base. Shell’s online initiative could potentially set them apart from the competition by offering an innovative, more efficient way of doing business. By reducing their own costs, the savings could then be passed on, at least partially, to the customer in the form of lower prices.

NASA’s Love Triangle Approach

In the workplace, consensual personal activities of individuals always affect the working relationship in undesirable ways. Often intimate relationships between co-workers emit preferential treatment at its best and discriminatory acts at its worst. Although Title VII does not declare intimate relationships in the workplace as an immoral, unethical and distasteful act, enough room for discrimination often produce a resultant effect when persons are disadvantaged due to a preferential treatment of another. There is a potential for hostility when widespread favoritism exists between male and female employees. In a professional working relationship, the workplace would be ideally free from intimate relationships to prohibit favoritism and thereby banning nepotism. Office romances though are not illegal and discriminatory given the increased amount of time spent together by co-workers giving value to their work. However, work is a serious business and management requires workers to act rationally while doing their job. This phenomenon should be a cause for concern when personal issues interfere with work-related issues. The three-way love triangle situation between Lisa Nowak, Bill Oefelein and Corlean Shipman threaten the traditional ideas of anti-nepotism and non-fraternization in the workplace. NASA capitalizes on its human workforce to proffer its interests. Although it’s governing code of conduct according to NASA’s Shana Dale upon interview (Orlando Sentinel, 2007) do not necessarily insisted regulations that guard and meddle on astronauts and other federal employee’s personal lives. No matter how we try to justify this explanation for NASA’s lapses I continue to insist that American companies have a natural desire to keep personal relationships at bay in the workplace in the face of corporate dilemmas over discrimination and harassments. Often management sees that relationships within the company lead to a conflict of interests and inefficiency resulting from spending time and energy on non-work related activities (Avelenda, 1998: 691). Under the guise of protecting employees from claims of sexual harassment, policies would often widen to informally restrict fraternization and intra-organizational intimate interaction. It was therefore a shock to learn how NASA completely disregarded the personal lives of its employees. Astronauts are usually subjected to stringent rules and equally invasive medical procedures. Nowak no doubt had undergone extensive medical and psychological examinations if protocols were followed prior and after her July 4, 2006 on the STS-121 mission which included a trip to the International Space Station according to NASA (2006). Her NASA bio declared her as a flight engineer with a rank of captain who logged almost 13 days in space and garnered the honor as the first Italian American in space. Her confrontation with a fellow NASA employee who was reportedly a rival for the affections of another space shuttle pilot definitely exhibits her gullibility to submit to effects of an emotional strain that is aggravated by strained relationships. NASA’s lapses in the face of the current situation involving the triangle love affair of their employees indicated the organization’s past disinterest over interpersonal issues involving their own working family. NASA has forgotten that Nowak at the age 43 and likely at the prime of her life after her shuttle trip last summer may have felt a bleak end to her career as an astronaut whose second and third spaceflights would be tough to get after space shuttles are scheduled for retirement in 2010(Orlando Sentinel, Feb.,2007). Bouts of depression are also not uncommon to astronauts who come home and are considered as heroes and overachievers. To recall, Edwin â€Å"Buzz† Aldrin as the second man to step on the moon after Neil Armstrong had alcohol problems after their successful return from their mission. NASA has therefore dismissed the complexities of an unpredictable human emotional response in the face of scientific calculable predictability. In response to Nowak’s arrest NASA should review the procedures involved in their psychological evaluations. The military have been instrumental in submitting their personnel particularly pilots for psychological intervention following extraordinary stress like divorce or deaths in the family (Christian Science Monitor; September, 2004). NASA may not have been helpful on this aspect. They may have forgotten how catastrophic consequences are brought about by a human element of error. It would therefore be beneficial for NASA and its employees to understand the stress of working in the space program and at least delegate focus on the personal relationships among its astronauts. Mccurdy (1999) once said that astronauts, like police officers, treat their profession as a way of life, not just a job. Despite any self-discipline, astronauts are enjoined to focus on their goals and keep on pursuing such goals which was seen in Nowak’s single-minded pursuit against a foe. It would help NASA if it should also establish protocols and policies that treat the grievances of their own personnel. A professional independent body that provides proper psychological help and emotional assistance and counseling for its personnel should be made available for its employees. This body’s aim is for the recognition of possible emotional and psychological trauma experience by its key personnel without being used to leverage employment standing in the organization. Any official involvement into the diagnosis and treatment would alert and divert employee-patients away from the program. Secondly, NASA must also work to regulate workplace fraternizing relationships through a less authoritative disapproval of intra-organizational romance. This would be properly implemented when put into writing for NASA to be able to eliminate its involvement in the future as an employer liability. Further, when inter-organizational romance and sexual relationships are frowned upon naturally, the well-discipline NASA astronauts would be consistent in their efforts to refrain from intimate relationships with their co-workers. Another alternative also is for NASA to require employees to report any consensual relationships within its initiation and aftermath through the proper human relations body. In the face of the current scenario between Lisa Nowak, Bill Oefelein and Corlean Shipman, given the organization’s growing exposure and in conjunction with being held liable for its apparent disregard for the well-being of its employees; I feel that NASA has an ethical and moral responsibility to support Nowak through her misdemeanor and refrain from painting her faults and deviant behavior. After all, Bill Oefelein seemingly exercised his dominion by maintaining two romantic relationships at the same time with two different women in the same organization thereby causing trouble for both. To restrict this trend, it would serve NASA if Oefelein should face a temporary suspension as well. Corlean Shipman is entirely the innocent party and ould not benefit any organizing body to involve her in any internal disciplinary measure that Oefelien shall face. Lisa Nowak is already facing criminal charges and yet, NASA is duty-bound to support her through this ordeal after all it has been remiss in its duties towards its employees and the whole scientific community and the public. Society must therefore scrutinize the various policies involve in National scientific and military organizations and regulate the intimate relationships of employees within their organization. This is to ensure that employees are not placed in an unnecessary position that requires them to choose between duty and relationship to enhance productivity and protect them from any emotional turmoil. Title VII may not be so keen on fraternization within official work and duty but somehow this has provided an avenue for harassment and discrimination in the past (Avelenda, 693). NASA as a healthy organization geared towards training personnel for space excellence must also recognize the full potential of allowing people to deal with their emotional problems with the assistance and help of independent human relations services that provide psychological evaluation, treatment and counseling for personnel particularly the ones who are involved in missions. Works Cited Willoughby, Mariano, Cabbage, M., Lundy, S. and Hunt, A. (2007).The Orlando Sentinel. February 7. Avelenda, Saily M. (1998).Comment: Love and Marriage in the American Workplace: Why No-Spouse Policies Don't Work. PA. J. LAB. ; EMP. 691, 693 . United States. NASA. (2006) Astronaut Biography: Lisa Nowak. Accessed : 04 April, 2007 http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/nowak.html Editorial. (2004). Anyone Ever Prepared To Kill? Christian Science Monitor Magazine, September 29. McCurdy, Howard. (1999). Space and the American Imagination, new ed.   Smithsonian. ;

African American Culture Essay Example for Free (#4)

African American Culture Essay ? Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans’ desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br’er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker’s tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980’s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or â€Å"Black Arts Movement. The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin’), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later becam e known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that â€Å"black is beautiful. † During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the â€Å"Negro National Anthem† by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah! and operas such as George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R;B developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of ‘rapping’ grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic] The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name â€Å"The Highwaymen†. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic] A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and cademic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African Americ an women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, â€Å"†¦ very woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head†¦ â€Å", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as â€Å"crowns. † Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one’s hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in God’s eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one’s master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: â€Å"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa†¦ onsequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction† Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to â€Å"jump the broom† as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative esponses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing. Pig intestines are boiled and sometimes battered and fried to make chitterlings, also known as â€Å"chitlins. Ham hocks and neck bones provide seasoning to soups, beans and boiled greens (turnip greens, collard greens, and mustard greens). Other common foods, such as fried chicken and fish, macaroni and cheese, cornbread and hoppin’ john (black-eyed peas and rice) are prepared simply. When the African American population was considerably more rural than it generally is today, rabbit, possum, squirrel, and waterfowl were important additions to the diet. Many of these food traditions are especially predominant in many parts of the rural South. Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat, sodium and starch. Highly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers, farmhands and rural lifestyles generally, it is now a contributing factor to obesity, heart disease, and diabetes in a population that has become increasingly more urban and sedentary. As a result, more health-conscious African-Americans are using alternative methods of preparation, eschewing trans fats in favor of natural vegetable oils and substituting smoked turkey for fatback and other, cured pork products; limiting the amount of refined sugar in desserts; and emphasizing the consumption of more fruits and vegetables than animal protein. There is some resistance to such changes, however, as they involve deviating from long culinary tradition. Holidays and observances [pic] A woman wearing traditional West African clothing lighting the candles on a kinara for a Kwanzaa celebration. As with other American racial and ethnic groups, African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. Holidays observed in African American culture are not only observed by African Americans. The birthday of noted American civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr has been observed nationally since 1983. It is one of three federal holidays named for an individual. Black History Month is another example of another African American observance that has been adopted nationally. Black History Month is an attempt to focus attention on previously neglected aspects of the African American experience. It is observed during the month of February to coincide with the founding of the NAACP and the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, a prominent African American abolitionist, and Abraham Lincoln, the United States president who signed the Emancipation Proclamation. Less widely observed outside of the African American community is Emancipation Day. The nature and timing of the celebration vary regionally. It is most widely observed as Juneteenth, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865 in Texas. Another holiday not widely observed outside of the African American community is the birthday of Malcolm X. The day is observed on May 19 in American cities with a significant African American population, including Washington, D. C.. One of the most noted African American holidays is Kwanzaa. Like Emancipation Day, it is not widely observed outside of the African American community, although it is growing in popularity within the community. African American scholar and activist â€Å"Maulana† Ron Karenga invented the festival of Kwanzaa in 1966, as an alternative to the increasing commercialization of Christmas. Derived from the harvest rituals of Africans, Kwanzaa is observed each year from December 26 through January 1. Participants in Kwanzaa celebrations affirm their African heritage and the importance of family and community by drinking from a unity cup; lighting red, black, and green candles; exchanging heritage symbols, such as African art; and recounting the lives of people who struggled for African and African American freedom. Names African American names are often drawn from the same language groups as other popular names found in the United States. The practice of adopting neo-African or Islamic names did not gain popularity until the late Civil Rights era. Efforts to recover African heritage inspired selection of names with deeper cultural significance. Prior to this, using African names was not practical for two reasons. First, many African Americans were several generations removed from the last ancestor to have an African name since slaves were often given European names. Second, a traditional American name helps an individual fit into American society. Another African American naming practice that predates the use of African names is the use of â€Å"made-up† names. In an attempt to create their own identity, growing numbers of African American parents, starting in the post-World War II era, began creating new names based on sounds they found pleasing such as Marquon, DaShawn, LaTasha, or Shandra. Family When slavery was practiced in the United States, it was common for families to be separated through sale. Even during slavery, however, African American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. Free, African men and women, who managed to buy their own freedom by being hired out, who were emancipated, or who had escaped their masters, often worked long and hard to buy the members of their families who remained in bondage and send for them. Others, separated from blood kin, formed close bonds comprised of fictive kin; play relations, play aunts, cousins and the like. This practice, perhaps a holdover from African tradition, survived Emancipation, with non-blood family friends commonly accorded the status and titles of blood relations. This broader, more African concept of what constitutes family and community, and the deeply rooted respect for elders that is part of African traditional societies may be the genesis of the common use of the terms like â€Å"aunt†, â€Å"uncle†, â€Å"brother,† â€Å"sister†, â€Å"Mother† and â€Å"Mama† when addressing other African American people, some of whom may be complete strangers. Or, it could have arisen in the Christian church as a way of greeting fellow congregants and believers. Immediately after slavery, African American families struggled to reunite and rebuild what had been taken. As late as 1960, 78% of African American families were headed by married couples. This number steadily declined over the latter half of the 20th century. A number of factors, including attitudes towards education, gender roles, and poverty have created a situation where, for the first time since slavery, a majority of African American children live in a household with only one parent, typically the mother. These figures appear to indicate a weak African American nuclear family structure, especially within a large patriarchal society. This apparent weakness is balanced by mutual aid systems established by extended family members to provide emotional and economic support. Older family members pass on social and cultural traditions such as religion and manners to younger family members. In turn, the older family members are cared for by younger family members when they are unable to care for themselves. These relationships exist at all economic levels in the African American community, providing strength and support both to the African American family and the community. Politics and social issues Since the passing of the Voting Rights Act, African Americans are voting and being elected to public office in increasing numbers. As of January 2001 there were 9,101 African American elected officials in America. African Americans are overwhelmingly Democratic. Only 11% of African Americans voted for George W. Bush in the 2004 Presidential Election. Social issues such as racial profiling, the racial disparity in sentencing, higher rates of poverty, institutional racism, and lower access to health care are important to the African American community. While the divide on racial and fiscal issues has remained consistently wide for decades, seemingly indicating a wide social divide, African Americans tend to hold the same optimism and concern for America as Whites. In the case of many moral issues such as religion, and family values, African Americans tend to be more conservative than Whites. Another area where African Americans outstrip Whites in their conservatism is on the issue of homosexuality. Prominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay rights issues such as gay marriage. There are those within the community who take a more inclusive position most notably, the late Mrs. Coretta Scott King, and the Reverend Al Sharpton, who, when asked in 2003 whether he supported gay marriage, replied that he might as well have been asked if he supported black marriage or white marriage. Neighborhoods African American neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. The formation of African American neighborhoods is closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws, or as a product of social norms. Despite this, African American neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of nearly all aspects of both African American culture and broader American culture. Due to segregated conditions and widespread poverty some African American neighborhoods in the United States have been called â€Å"ghettos. † The use of this term is controversial and, depending on the context, potentially offensive. Despite mainstream America’s use of the term â€Å"ghetto† to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities, those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African American ghettos did not always contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its residents poverty-stricken. For many African Americans, the ghetto was â€Å"home† a place representing authentic blackness and a feeling, passion, or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America. Langston Hughes relays in the â€Å"Negro Ghetto† (1931) and â€Å"The Heart of Harlem† (1945): â€Å"The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone/And the streets are long and wide,/But Harlem’s much more than these alone,/Harlem is what’s inside. Playwright August Wilson used the term â€Å"ghetto† in Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom (1984) and Fences (1987), both of which draw upon the author’s experience growing up in the Hill district of Pittsburgh, an African American ghetto. Although African American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment, with lower q uality schools, less effective policing and fire protection. There are institutions such as churches and museums and political organizations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African American neighborhoods. In African American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion. For some African Americans the kind spirituality learned through these churches works as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism. Museums devoted to African American history are also found in many African American neighborhoods. Many African American neighborhoods are located in inner cities, These are the mostly residential neighborhoods located closest to the central business district. The built environment is often row houses or brownstones, mixed with older single family homes that may be converted to multi family homes. In some areas there are larger apartment buildings. Shotgun houses are an important part of the built environment of some southern African American neighborhoods. The houses consist of three to five rooms in a row with no hallways. This African American house design is found in both rural and urban southern areas, mainly in African-American communities and neighborhoods. African American Culture. (2018, Nov 09).